async-await reference material (squashed)

src/SUMMARY.md

@@ -67,6 +67,7 @@
         - [If and if let expressions](expressions/if-expr.md)
         - [Match expressions](expressions/match-expr.md)
         - [Return expressions](expressions/return-expr.md)
+        - [Await expressions](expressions/await-expr.md)
 
 - [Patterns](patterns.md)
 

src/expressions.md

@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
 >       | [_OperatorExpression_]\
 >       | [_GroupedExpression_]\
 >       | [_ArrayExpression_]\
+>       | [_AwaitExpression_]\
 >       | [_IndexExpression_]\
 >       | [_TupleExpression_]\
 >       | [_TupleIndexingExpression_]\
@@ -33,6 +34,7 @@
 > &nbsp;&nbsp; [_OuterAttribute_]<sup>\*</sup>[†](#expression-attributes)\
 > &nbsp;&nbsp; (\
 > &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; [_BlockExpression_]\
+> &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; | [_AsyncBlockExpression_]\
 > &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; | [_UnsafeBlockExpression_]\
 > &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; | [_LoopExpression_]\
 > &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; | [_IfExpression_]\
@@ -324,6 +326,8 @@ They are never allowed before:
 
 [_ArithmeticOrLogicalExpression_]: expressions/operator-expr.md#arithmetic-and-logical-binary-operators
 [_ArrayExpression_]:              expressions/array-expr.md
+[_AsyncBlockExpression_]:         expressions/block-expr.md#async-blocks
+[_AwaitExpression_]:              expressions/await-expr.md
 [_AssignmentExpression_]:         expressions/operator-expr.md#assignment-expressions
 [_BlockExpression_]:              expressions/block-expr.md
 [_BreakExpression_]:              expressions/loop-expr.md#break-expressions

src/expressions/await-expr.md

@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+# Await expressions
+
+> **<sup>Syntax</sup>**\
+> _AwaitExpression_ :\
+> &nbsp;&nbsp; [_Expression_] `.` `await`
+
+Await expressions are legal only within an [async context], like an
+[`async fn`] or an [`async` block]. They operate on a [future]. Their effect
+is to suspend the current computation until the given future is ready
+to produce a value.
+
+More specifically, an `<expr>.await` expression has the following effect.
+
+1. Evaluate `<expr>` to a [future] `tmp`;
+2. Pin `tmp` using [`Pin::new_unchecked`];
+3. This pinned future is then polled by calling the [`Future::poll`] method and
+   passing it the current [task context](#task-context);
+3. If the call to `poll` returns [`Poll::Pending`], then the future
+   returns `Poll::Pending`, suspending its state so that, when the
+   surrounding async context is re-polled, execution returns to step
+   2;
+4. Otherwise the call to `poll` must have returned [`Poll::Ready`], in which case the
+   value contained in the [`Poll::Ready`] variant is used as the result
+   of the `await` expression itself.
+
+[`async fn`]: ../items/functions.md#async-functions
+[`async` block]: block-expr.md#async-blocks
+[future]: ../../std/future/trait.Future.html
+[_Expression_]: ../expressions.md
+[`Future::poll`]: ../../std/future/trait.Future.html#tymethod.poll
+[`Context`]: ../../std/task/struct.Context.html
+[`Pin::new_unchecked`]: ../../std/pin/struct.Pin.html#method.new_unchecked
+[`Poll::Pending`]: ../../std/task/enum.Poll.html#variant.Pending
+[`Poll::Ready`]: ../../std/task/enum.Poll.html#variant.Ready
+
+> **Edition differences**: Await expressions are only available beginning with
+> Rust 2018.
+
+## Task context
+
+The task context refers to the [`Context`] which was supplied to the
+current [async context] when the async context itself was
+polled. Because `await` expressions are only legal in an async
+context, there must be some task context available.
+
+[`Context`]: ../../std/task/struct.Context.html
+[async context]: ../expressions/block-expr.md#async-context
+
+## Approximate desugaring
+
+Effectively, an `<expr>.await` expression is roughly
+equivalent to the following (this desugaring is not normative):
+
+```rust,ignore
+let future = /* <expr> */;
+loop {
+    let mut pin = unsafe { Pin::new_unchecked(&mut future) };
+    match Pin::future::poll(Pin::borrow(&mut pin), &mut current_context) {
+        Poll::Ready(r) => break r,
+        Poll::Pending => yield Poll::Pending,
+    }
+}
+```
+
+where the `yield` pseudo-code returns `Poll::Pending` and, when
+re-invoked, resumes execution from that point. The variable
+`current_context` refers to the context taken from the async
+environment.

src/expressions/block-expr.md

@@ -80,6 +80,74 @@ fn move_by_block_expression() {
 }
 ```
 
+## `async` blocks
+
+> **<sup>Syntax</sup>**\
+> _AsyncBlockExpression_ :\
+> &nbsp;&nbsp; `async` `move`<sup>?</sup> _BlockExpression_
+
+An *async block* is a variant of a block expression which evaluates to
+a *future*. The final expression of the block, if present, determines
+the result value of the future.
+
+Executing an async block is similar to executing a closure expression:
+its immediate effect is to produce and return an anonymous type.
+Whereas closures return a type that implements one or more of the
+[`std::ops::Fn`] traits, however, the type returned for an async block
+implements the [`std::future::Future`] trait. The actual data format for
+this type is unspecified.
+
+> **Note:** The future type that rustc generates is roughly equivalent
+> to an enum with one variant per `await` point, where each variant
+> stores the data needed to resume from its corresponding point.
+
+> **Edition differences**: Async blocks are only available beginning with Rust 2018.
+
+[`std::ops::Fn`]: ../../std/ops/trait.Fn.html
+[`std::future::Future`]: ../../std/future/trait.Future.html
+
+### Capture modes
+
+Async blocks capture variables from their environment using the same
+[capture modes] as closures. Like closures, when written `async {
+.. }` the capture mode for each variable will be inferred from the
+content of the block. `async move { .. }` blocks however will move all
+referenced variables into the resulting future.
+
+[capture modes]: ../types/closure.md#capture-modes
+[shared references]: ../types/pointer.md#shared-references-
+[mutable reference]: ../types/pointer.md#mutables-references-
+
+### Async context
+
+Because async blocks construct a future, they define an **async
+context** which can in turn contain [`await` expressions].  Async
+contexts are established by async blocks as well as the bodies of
+async functions, whose semantics are defined in terms of async blocks.
+
+[`await` expressions]: await-expr.md
+
+### Control-flow operators
+
+Async blocks act like a function boundary, much like
+closures. Therefore, the `?` operator and `return` expressions both
+affect the output of the future, not the enclosing function or other
+context. That is, `return <expr>` from within a closure will return
+the result of `<expr>` as the output of the future. Similarly, if
+`<expr>?` propagates an error, that error is propagated as the result
+of the future.
+
+Finally, the `break` and `continue` keywords cannot be used to branch
+out from an async block. Therefore the following is illegal:
+
+```rust,edition2018,compile_fail
+loop {
+    async move {
+        break; // This would break out of the loop.
+    }
+}
+```
+
 ## `unsafe` blocks
 
 > **<sup>Syntax</sup>**\

src/items/functions.md

@@ -8,7 +8,10 @@
 >       [_BlockExpression_]
 >
 > _FunctionQualifiers_ :\
-> &nbsp;&nbsp; `const`<sup>?</sup> `unsafe`<sup>?</sup> (`extern` _Abi_<sup>?</sup>)<sup>?</sup>
+> &nbsp;&nbsp; _AsyncConstQualifiers_<sup>?</sup> `unsafe`<sup>?</sup> (`extern` _Abi_<sup>?</sup>)<sup>?</sup>
+>
+> _AsyncConstQualifiers_ :\
+> &nbsp;&nbsp; `async` | `const`
 >
 > _Abi_ :\
 > &nbsp;&nbsp; [STRING_LITERAL] | [RAW_STRING_LITERAL]
@@ -189,6 +192,104 @@ Exhaustive list of permitted structures in const functions:
   the following unsafe operations:
     * calls to const unsafe functions
 
+## Async functions
+
+Functions may be qualified as async, and this can also be combined with the
+`unsafe` qualifier:
+
+```rust,edition2018
+async fn regular_example() { }
+async unsafe fn unsafe_example() { }
+```
+
+Async functions do no work when called: instead, they
+capture their arguments into a future. When polled, that future will
+execute the function's body.
+
+An async function is roughly equivalent to a function
+that returns [`impl Future`] and with an [`async move` block][async-blocks] as
+its body:
+
+```rust,edition2018
+// Source
+async fn example(x: &str) -> usize {
+    x.len()
+}
+```
+
+is roughly equivalent to:
+
+```rust,edition2018
+# use std::future::Future;
+// Desugared
+fn example<'a>(x: &'a str) -> impl Future<Output = usize> + 'a {
+    async move { x.len() }
+}
+```
+
+The actual desugaring is more complex:
+
+- The return type in the desugaring is assumed to capture all lifetime
+  parameters from the `async fn` declaration. This can be seen in the
+  desugared example above, which explicitly outlives, and hence
+  captures, `'a`.
+- The [`async move` block][async-blocks] in the body captures all function
+  parameters, including those that are unused or bound to a `_`
+  pattern. This ensures that function parameters are dropped in the
+  same order as they would be if the function were not async, except
+  that the drop occurs when the returned future has been fully
+  awaited.
+
+For more information on the effect of async, see [`async` blocks][async-blocks].
+
+[async-blocks]: ../expressions/block-expr.md#async-blocks
+[`impl Future`]: ../types/impl-trait.md
+
+> **Edition differences**: Async functions are only available beginning with
+> Rust 2018.
+
+### Combining `async` and `unsafe`
+
+It is legal to declare a function that is both async and unsafe. The
+resulting function is unsafe to call and (like any async function)
+returns a future. This future is just an ordinary future and thus an
+`unsafe` context is not required to "await" it:
+
+```rust,edition2018
+// Returns a future that, when awaited, dereferences `x`.
+//
+// Soundness condition: `x` must be safe to dereference until
+// the resulting future is complete.
+async unsafe fn unsafe_example(x: *const i32) -> i32 {
+  *x
+}
+
+async fn safe_example() {
+    // An `unsafe` block is required to invoke the function initially:
+    let p = 22;
+    let future = unsafe { unsafe_example(&p) };
+    
+    // But no `unsafe` block required here. This will
+    // read the value of `p`:
+    let q = future.await;
+}
+```
+
+Note that this behavior is a consequence of the desugaring to a
+function that returns an `impl Future` -- in this case, the function
+we desugar to is an `unsafe` function, but the return value remains
+the same.
+
+Unsafe is used on an async function in precisely the same way that it
+is used on other functions: it indicates that the function imposes
+some additional obligations on its caller to ensure soundness. As in any
+other unsafe function, these conditions may extend beyond the initial
+call itself -- in the snippet above, for example, the `unsafe_example`
+function took a pointer `x` as argument, and then (when awaited)
+dereferenced that pointer. This implies that `x` would have to be
+valid until the future is finished executing, and it is the callers
+responsibility to ensure that.
+
 ## Attributes on functions
 
 [Outer attributes][attributes] are allowed on functions. [Inner